For the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, our focus spans from the 10th century to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. This includes the reign of Basil II, a time when Norsemen like Harald Hardrada served as Varangian Guards within the Empire, up until the Ottoman invasions during the reign of Constantine XI, the Empire’s final emperor.

As the continuation of the Roman Empire, Byzantium was the largest and wealthiest European empire for much of medieval history. Strategically positioned at the crossroads of Asia and Europe along the Silk Road, its capital, Constantinople, was a marvel of the medieval world. The city boasted architectural wonders such as the Hagia Sophia and the formidable Theodosian Walls, which earned a legendary reputation for withstanding countless sieges. The Crusaders temporarily captured it during the Fourth Crusade, but its ultimate fall came at the hands of the Ottomans in 1453.

The Byzantine military was composed of professional soldiers, who were compensated with money, land, or food, and bolstered by mercenaries. Their military expertise is preserved in texts like the Tactica and Strategicon. Renowned units included the heavily-armored Cataphracts, the fiercely loyal Varangian Guard, and the naval Dromon ships armed with Greek fire, a terrifying incendiary weapon. Blending Roman heritage with Orthodox Christianity, the Byzantines developed a distinct culture that set them apart from their Western counterparts.